Images Preprocessing: "To focus on specific bands relevant to LULC analysis, the satellite images underwent preprocessing procedures such as layer stacking and sub-setting." These procedures are designed to increase visual interpretation and spectral separability of earth surface characteristics, as well as provide improved inputs for automated image processing algorithms 45. To improve the images' accuracy, geometric and radiometric adjustments are also made.

The classified images are compared to ground truth data in order to evaluate accuracy. The categorization performance is assessed by calculating the accuracy of the producer and user by creating a confusion matrix.

where C_i​ is the change in class, P_i​ is the percentage change in the i​-th class, L_i​ is the latest image (2020), and B_i​ is the base image (2000).

Over the past two decades, Mysuru City has witnessed a significant transformation, with built-up areas growing rapidly. In 2000, built-up regions accounted for 36.85 sq.km. (42.51%) of the city's total area. By 2020, this increased dramatically to 61.61 sq.km., making up 71.06% of the total area, marking a 66.97% rise. This growth reflects a clear shift toward residential development.

With increased in-migration and natural population growth, new residential neighbourhoods and commercial areas emerged, especially in peri-urban zones. Urban Transition Theory 49 posits that urbanization is an inevitable stage in socio-economic development, driven by population growth, industrialization, and the centralization of economic activities. It explains how increasing urbanization leads to transformations in land use, replacing agricultural or natural landscapes with built environments.

In Mysuru city, the most notable concentration of built-up areas since the year 2000 is in the central part of the city CBD (Central Business District), especially around K.R. circle, Mysuru Palace, and nearby localities like Agrahara, Lakshmipuram, Ashokapuram, Devraj Mohalla, and Mandi Mohalla. These areas show a high density of mixed-use buildings, both residential and commercial.

In contrast, the peripheral regions of the city, such as Hebbal, Vijayanagara, Sharadadevinagara, and parts of J.P. Nagar, showed lower density built-up areas which is primarily residential. These areas were less developed or had more open or green spaces in the past.

As built-up areas expanded, many of the green spaces and open spaces around the city were converted into grey spaces (developed areas) by 2020. Previously low-density built-up regions, such as Hebbal, Kumbarakoppalu, and Mahadeshwara Badavane in the northwest and Vontikoppal, Dattagalli in west and Shrirampura, J.P.Nagara in South-West, are now seeing significant urbanization.

Areas that were once open or green spaces have gradually transformed into high-density residential or commercial zones. Residential roads in some parts of the city, like Chamaraja double road, Apollo hospital road, and Vontikoppal main road, have been converted into commercial areas in 20 years further contributing to the growth of built-up regions.

Several residential areas in the north, east, and southeast of the city, such as, Kesare, Rajivnagara, Udaygiri and Vidyaranyapuram, have seen substantial growth in built-up areas. These areas, once either green or open spaces, are now rapidly urbanizing.

Mysuru’s built-up areas have expanded significantly, with the central regions experiencing the most concentrated development, especially for mixed-use purposes (residential and commercial). On the other hand, the peripheral areas, once characterized by open spaces or low-density development, are also witnessing rapid urbanization. This growth has led to the transformation of previously green and open spaces into high-density built-up zones, with a noticeable shift towards residential and commercial development. The pace of change suggests that these trends will continue in the coming years, further reshaping the city’s landscape.

The Figure 2 shows the Land Use Land Cover of Mysuru city 2000 to 2020. The growth of built-up regions is the most notable shift that Mysuru City has seen in the last 20 years, where 36.85 sq.km. or 42.51% of the city's total area, were made up of built-up areas in 2000. This number increased significantly by 2020, reaching 61.61 sq.km. or 71.06% of the total area, an increase of almost 66.97%.

The city's status as a regional economic center and the resulting demand for residential and commercial space are the reasons for this rapid growth. Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka, is close to Mysuru, which has aided in population expansion and industrial development, raising the demand for infrastructure. In addition to speeding up infrastructure expansion projects, Mysuru's status as a "Smart City" attracted additional commercial investments. The loss of green and open spaces, which are essential for preserving urban biodiversity and ecological health, is a clear result of this fast urbanization.

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Mysuru's water bodies have drastically declined, shrinking from 0.89 sq. km. (1.03% of the total area) in 2000 to 0.44 sq. km. (0.51%) in 2020, a 50.56% loss. Of the eight lakes, Kukkarahalli and Karanji are the most prominent. Kukkarahalli lake, located in the city’s heart near landmarks like the University of Mysore and CFTRI, was created in the early 19th century as a percolation tank for drinking water. Similarly, Karanji lake, over 100 years old and adjacent to the Mysuru Zoo, served as a percolation tank before becoming part of the zoo in 1976. The now-defunct Doddekere tank, east of Mysuru Palace, was used a century ago but has been converted into an exhibition ground.

The lakes face severe challenges, including sewage discharge, garbage dumping, silt inflow, land encroachment, illegal construction, and runoff diversion. Cutting of foreshore trees has caused soil erosion, while pollution and eutrophication have reduced their size. Many areas around the lakes have turned into swamps, breeding insects and degrading their ecological value. Revitalizing these lakes is crucial to restoring their environmental and recreational significance.

Green spaces in Mysuru have seen a significant reduction over the past two decades. In 2000, green spaces covered 22.49 sq.km. representing 25.95% of the city’s total area, but by 2020, this dropped to 16.92 sq.km., or 19.52% of the total area.

A relevant theoretical framework addressing the relationship between urbanization and the loss of urban green space is Ecological Modernization Theory which suggests that environmental degradation, including the reduction of green spaces, often results from rapid urban growth and industrialization but can be mitigated through proactive policy, technological innovation, and sustainable urban planning.

These green spaces were distributed unevenly across the city, with the northwestern and western parts, particularly around Kukkarahalli lake, University of Mysore (UOM) campus, and the CFTRI campus, having ample green cover. Residential areas such as Gokulam, Yadavgiri, Jayalakshmipuram, Vontikoppal, Gangotri Layout, Saraswathipuram, and Kuvempunagara had good amounts of parks and avenue trees. Similarly, the southeastern parts of the city, including Vidyaranyapuram, Chamundipuram, Ittigegudu, and Gayatripuram, benefited from proximity to Karanji lake and the Mysuru Zoo, as well as the foot of Chamundi hill. The northern parts, like Kesare, Bannimantap HUDCO, and Metgalli, had large green patches, though they were mostly unplanned. These areas, along with the regions surrounding Kukkarahalli and Karanji lakes, acted as “Mini Lungs” for the city.

Figure 6

However, over time, green spaces in Mysuru have drastically decreased, with satellite data revealing that only 19.5% of urban Mysuru remains covered by green spaces, which include parks, gardens, and green patches, both systematically and randomly grown. The distribution of green spaces is highly uneven, with the northern, western, and south-eastern parts retaining more green areas, while other regions have lost significant portions due to urban expansion. Notably, areas like Metgalli, Bannimantap, Kesare, and Rajivnagar in the north have seen thick green patches vanish for residential development.

Similarly, green spaces in the southwest around Sharadadevinagara and Dattagalli have been overtaken by built-up areas. In the southern parts of the city, green spaces in Srirampura, Jayanagara, Arvindanagara, and Kuvempunagara have been reduced due to residential development and road construction, which has also led to widespread tree felling.

The south-eastern part, despite seeing some loss due to the expansion of built-up areas, still retains more green spaces compared to other parts, largely due to its proximity to Karanji lake and Chamundi hill. However, even areas like Yerganahalli in the eastern limit and neighbourhoods such as Udayagiri, Sathyanagara, Gousiyanagara, and Shanthinagara in the north-east have been entirely deprived of significant green spaces due to high-density urbanization. The overall trend clearly shows a sharp decline in green spaces across the city as urban growth, particularly residential development, continues to consume the available green cover.

The open spaces in Mysuru have significantly decreased over the past two decades, dropping from 26.44 sq.km. (30.50% of the total area shown in Figure 5) in 2000 to just 7.71 sq.km. (8.89% of the total area shown in Figure 6) in 2020. These open spaces, which are scattered across the city, are mostly found away from the center of the city and in the north-western, south-western, and southern parts, areas that are largely unbuilt and hold potential for future development.

While open spaces like vacant residential plots, playgrounds, sports grounds, and public properties are still present, many of these spaces are gradually being converted into built-up areas as the city expands. In the northwest, areas like Vijayanagara 1st and 2nd stage contain open spaces, mainly vacant plots, and sports grounds, while in the west, the Mysuru University campus, Kukkarahalli lake parks, and the Oval grounds represent significant open spaces.

The south-western and southern parts of the city, while still having some parks and playgrounds (un-maintained with peripheral vegetation) are dominated by residential areas, with vacant plots adding to the open space but often remaining barren. The southern part, particularly areas like Srirampura, Jayanagara, and J.P. nagara, has limited open spaces, insufficient compared to the surrounding built-up areas.

In the south-eastern part, Vidyaranyapuram and Chamundipuram still retain some open spaces, but their distribution is uneven and often unplanned.

The eastern part of the city, particularly Ittigegudu and Gayatripuram has vast open and green spaces, close to Chamundi hill and Karanji lake making it a "mini lung space" of the city.

In contrast, the north-eastern part of the city, including areas like Yaraganahalli, Sathgalli, and Rajivnagar, suffers from high-density built-up areas with very little open space. Other areas like Gousiyanagara, Udaygiri, Kalyangiri, and Shantinagara also face a shortage of open spaces, which is concerning as it affects public health and well-being.

The northern parts, such as Kesare and Bannimantap, have some open spaces, but they are still inadequate compared to the expanding built-up areas, with Metgalli and Hebbal showing a shift towards residential and industrial development, further reducing open spaces.

The core/central parts of the city, including areas like K.R. circle, City bus stand, and Devaraja Mohalla, has negligible open spaces. This high-density area, primarily commercial and residential, is facing an acute shortage of open spaces, highlighting a pressing issue of rapid urbanization in Mysuru.

Between 2000 and 2020, the amount of green space, a crucial component of the urban environment decreased dramatically from 22.49 sq.km. to 16.92 sq.km. The area of vegetative spaces has decreased by 24.74%.

Compact Cities: Sustainable Urban Forms for Developing Countries model advocates for high-density, mixed-use urban development to limit urban sprawl and protect green spaces within city limits. 50 Concerns regarding the city's environmental sustainability have been raised by the ongoing conversion of green spaces into residential or commercial sectors. Because they enhance air quality, control temperature, promote biodiversity, and give locals access to recreational opportunities. Green spaces are vital to metropolitan environments but their disappearance restricts the amount of area available for leisure and physical activity in addition to having an effect on the ecological balance plans for development.If left unchecked, this trend may have a negative impact on Mysuru's general livability and public health.